Think about when you spoke to someone much older or younger than you. Was there a point in the conversation when you realized this person doesn't think the way you do? Whether it was their values, attitude, or another characteristic, you may have felt their perspective was completely different from yours. For example, they may have brought up a song, historical event, or reference you weren't familiar with. 

Now think about when you had a conversation with someone close to your age, and you brought up something from your childhood. For instance, you might have asked, "Do you remember that commercial they used to play in the '90s?" Or you may have inquired about an event that shook you to your core and asked, "Do you remember the exact moment when 9/11 happened?"

We have all felt distance from someone who belonged to a different generation and also the undeniable connection with someone from our same generation because of a shared experience. Generations are the invisible line that separates us from those who grew up in what feels like a different world and the web that connects us to those who grew up alongside us.

Although the concept of a generation isn't new, sociologists started to pay attention to what is now called "social generations" around the 19th century. They started looking at data to study the differences and similarities between the people who grew up in the same period.

No matter what generation you’re from, you’ve heard terms like “Baby Boomers” or “Millennials.” These are two of the social generations that exist in the Western world. 

There are a couple of significant theories about generations and how they develop. And even though the dates and names for each generation may vary, seven social generations are recognized in the US today. You might wonder what sociologists have discovered about the similarities between members of a generation and how people differ from one generation to the next. First, let's define what a generation is.

What is a generation?

A generation refers to a group of people born within a specific period. The word cohort is often used interchangeably in sociology with the term generation. In the context of social sciences, sociologists use the word cohort to describe those in a specific population who experience the same events within a particular time. Although the actual range differs, a generation typically spans 20-30 years. The span of some generations is longer than others. 

Before sociologists developed the concept of social generations, the original term referred to family relationships. In this context, the span of a generation was about the same as a social generation today. For example, 20-30 years is how long it typically took for the descendants of a specific family member to get married and have children.

When referencing family relationships, those in the same age group are a part of the same generation. For example, when a bloodline in a family extends from the grandparents to their children and grandchildren, three different generations would be represented. But the grandchildren and their cousins would be the same generation. Family history is worth knowing, and generations are what hold it together. But now, it’s more common for the term generation to refer to a group of people born in the same culture and during the same period. Most of the members of a social generation are not in the same family. 

Even though social generations were named as early as the 19th century, their popularity is a relatively new phenomenon in Western culture. Social generations are not popular simply because they’re groups of people born in the same country around the same time. The similarities people in a generation share are what make them so significant. Sociologists have discovered that a good portion of the members of a generation share values, preferences, and other characteristics and that these values change from one generation to the next. Humans sharing characteristics with those in the same household or the same neighborhood is not uncommon. But it’s notable when members of a generation across the country share these same characteristics. Despite the varying theories on generational differences, those who have studied generations agree there is a connection between values and the period in which a person grew up. 

Sociologists and researchers alike have spent years collecting data, but not everyone agrees that generational labels should exist. There has been some criticism about the study of generations in the past. Philip Cohen, a sociology professor at the University of Maryland, wrote an open letter to the Pew Research Center about generation labels in 2021. Louis Menand, a staff writer for The New Yorker, also expressed his doubts in an article titled “It’s Time to Stop Talking about Generations.” Both Cohen and Menand argued that generational differences are insignificant. They also pointed out that generational labels are used to reinforce stereotypes. Despite the criticism, studying and analyzing the behaviors and preferences of those in each social generation has been a valuable tool for researchers to understand motivations and predict patterns over time. 

Generations have increased in popularity since the mid-2000s, especially with the rise of social media. But the history of social generations goes back way farther than that. 

History of social generations

The idea of social generations came about in the 19th century. Karl Mannheim, a German sociologist, developed the theory of generations in 1927. Mannheim is also known for his book Ideology and Utopia. In this work, Mannheim points out that the three greatest factors in determining knowledge are a person’s social class, geographic location, and generation. Even though Mannheim is the first sociologist to develop extensive theories on generations, the process of grouping people by age to study social change can be traced back to the ancient Greek philosophers.

In his 1928 essay titled “The Problem of Generations,” Mannheim became the first person to identify generations of people as a sociological concept. Mannheim theorized that people are influenced dramatically by the historical events in their youth. The shared experience of these events causes a new social generation to develop. Mannheim distinguished the difference between social generations and the generations that exist through family relationships. From these ideas, Mannheim developed his theory of generations.

The other primary thought process on generational theory comes from William Strauss and Neil Howe, authors of Generations: The History of America’s Future, 1584 to 2069. Their generational theory describes a recurring cycle generations go through in a pattern. In addition to the cycles of each generation, they also theorized that historic events cause each generation to have a recurring archetype or persona. In their book, Strauss and Howe discuss the history of the United States regarding these generational cycles and personas. They expand on this in their second book, The Fourth Turning.

Both major generational theories look at the generations that have existed since the late 1800s, although most of the generational names we use today came from Strauss and Howe.  

Mannheim’s generational theory

Simply put, experts developed generational theories to explain the changes in social generations. Why is it that people born between the years 1920-1930 and those born between 1980-1990 are so different? Of course, we know that culture changes and the two groups of people you're comparing had different experiences. Karl Mannheim was the first sociologist to examine this idea of people's collective experiences connecting them. Mannheim argued that a "generation" of people was more than just a group that happened to be born around the same time. He made it clear that those people were all influenced and affected by their experiences and that those same experiences connected them.

According to Mannheim, it takes more than just being born during a specific time to start a new generation. Part of what makes a distinct generation is a recognition of the collective experiences within the cohort of people. Mannheim also theorized that generations give us the foundation for understanding social movements. He believed his study of generations proved how social change within a culture could occur while other aspects of a culture or society are preserved.

With Mannheim's theory of generations, there is an emphasis on the members of a generation experiencing these historical events during their youth. The idea is that the events during their childhood influenced them, leading them to develop what he referred to as a common generational consciousness. 

Does research support that the members of a generation share values, characteristics, and preferences within this collective consciousness? First, it's important to note that Mannheim expressed that not every generation develops this type of social consciousness. He also said that social and cultural change could occur without notable historical events. Still, it's more likely to occur at an accelerated pace with the help of major historical events. 

There are also differences in social generations based on geographic location since historical events that affect a generation may not always affect those in a different country. Not only does the age of an individual affect how they view a historical event, but their culture also impacts that. Here, we are discussing Western social generations.

Strauss and Howe Generational Theory

Strauss and Howe built on Mannheim's ideas and laid out their version of Generational theory in their book, Generations, published in 1991. Interestingly enough, Strauss and Howe's theory about generations essentially states that the historical events drive the separation of generations and that each generation starts over a new social, cultural, and political climate.

Strauss and Howe's theories on generations differed significantly from Mannheim's theory in several ways. First, they added a specific time from one generation to the next. They believed it was about 20 years. The core of their generational theory is that Strauss and Howe proposed that history moves in cycles. In Generations, Strauss and Howe refer to the events that define a generation as "turnings" and believe they occurred in a pattern. The four turnings they coined are:

• High

The first stage occurs after a crisis, and individualism is said to be weak during this stage. According to Strauss and Howe, the era post World War II was an example of the first turning.

• Awakening

The second turning is an era when individuals start to criticize institutions and desire more autonomy. According to the authors, one instance in history was the "consciousness revolution" that spanned from the mid-1960s to the early 1980s. 

• Unraveling

The third turning, or the unraveling, is the opposite of the first turning in many ways. Instead of institutions being strong and individuals being weak, individuals stop trusting institutions. Individuals in this stage also become strong and thrive in their newfound autonomy.

• Crisis

The fourth and final stage in the generation cycle, the crisis, is an era that often involves war or other destructive events. Institutions are thoughts to be torn down and rebuilt during this stage, ultimately to come together as a community and restore order. 

Each turning lasts about 20 years, and all four turnings occur over 80-90 years. The full cycle is called a saeculum, which comes from a Latin word meaning "a natural century."

Within these four turnings, Strauss and Howe theorized there were four specific generational archetypes, or patterns of behavior, that each generation cycled through. Much like the stages of the four turnings, they theorized that generations cycled through the different personas as well. The four archetypes were originally idealist, reactive, civic, and adaptive, as referenced in their 1991 book, Generations. In their 1997 book, The Fourth Turning, the four archetypes are renamed as the following:

• Prophet

Prophets, also called idealists, experience childhood during a high. They are moral leaders in the next awakening stage and are experiencing their later years during the next crisis. Prophets tend to be more self-absorbed as they go through the awakening but focus more on morals and values throughout their midlife. 

• Nomad

Nomad generations, formerly known as reactive, experience childhood during the awakening stage and tend to become more sensible adults during the next crisis. Two examples of this generation type are the Lost Generation and Generation X. 

• Hero

The hero, or civic, generations, come into the world during an unraveling and tend to be optimistic as they come of age during a crisis. At the end of their generation, they have the experience and political influence to impact the next awakening. Examples of the hero generation are Millennials and the G.I. Generation. 

• Artist

Artists, or adaptive generations, experience childhood during a crisis and come of age during the next phase in the generational cycle. They become conformists after the crisis phase and reflect in their final years after the next awakening. The Silent Generation is an example of this type. 

Strauss and Howe believed there is a pattern to these generational personalities. The reason generations cycle through them is that they respond to the generation before them and the events that occurred during their youth.

The four archetypes developed because generations that experience similar events will develop similar attitudes towards family, values, and culture. For example, two generations who experienced war during their lifetime might have related ideas about civic duty. In contrast, a generation who has never seen war would develop a different attitude.

Pulse Hypothesis Versus Imprint Hypothesis

There are generally two different hypotheses about how generations form: pulse-rate hypothesis and imprint hypothesis. Pulse-rate hypothesis states that all society is divided into different cohorts with different personalities because of the period they grew up in. An example of this hypothesis is Strauss and Howe’s generational theory, which states that each generation is a part of the cycle of generations, or the four turnings. 

On the other hand, Imprint hypothesis states that major historical events leave an “imprint” on the members of a generation and that the historical events are what cause a new generation to form. This hypothesis connects to Karl Mannheim’s original generational theory. 

Regardless of how generations form, it’s worth examining what the members of each social generation have in common and what shared experiences shaped their values, perspectives, and characteristics. 

Why do social generations matter?

What is so interesting about each generation is the idea of the collective experience. Despite any differences in beliefs, values, and politics, the members of each social generation have something in common: they were all raised in the same period. Therefore, any worldwide event is something they experienced collectively, around the same time in their development.

The similarities between each member go even deeper within similar cultures. Of course, members of the same generation but different nationalities certainly might have contrasting experiences. But members of the same culture or similar cultures are connected by numerous collective experiences.

The social generations discussed here are the ones recognized in the Western world. Sociologists have studied the characteristics of generations across the globe to see if any similarities exist. However, the social generations in Western society aren't recognized worldwide because the historical events that shape each generation vary from country to country. 

Historic events happen in each generation, and we don't always know they're historic until we look back in time. Suppose you think back to the past 20-30 years. In that case, you could start to piece together what historical events would go on a timeline for the current generation. But there may be some events that have a larger long-term impact than we currently realize. 

According to the Pew Research Center, an individual's age is one of the most reliable ways to determine their beliefs and where they stand on specific issues. In addition, an individual's age gives a wide range of information about their views because research can show how their thoughts and ideas change as they get older.

The research center referred to this factor as the life cycle, or age, effect. This effect means where a person currently is in their life cycle will affect their behavior. For example, a person who is sixteen years old is certainly going to have different thoughts and opinions than they will when they're fifty years old. Their behaviors and values are likely to change depending on how old they are.

Another factor that can contribute to generational differences is called a period effect. A period effect occurs when significant events, such as a war or a pandemic, affect everyone regardless of how old they are. Major historical events and other circumstances can impact how groups of people view the government, the workforce, or any other part of their life. Some of these changes in perspective can be short-term, while others can be long-term and even passed on to the next generation.

The final factor associated with generational differences is called a cohort effect. The cohort effect states that generational differences can sometimes exist because one generation may have experienced a historical event that another generation did not experience. For example, those who fought or were alive during World War II were significantly impacted by the war. However, the generations of people who were not born yet or not old enough to understand what happened do not have the same impact. So, naturally, those who lived through the war will have some differences from those who didn't experience it. 

Does that mean everyone in a specific generation thinks the same? Certainly not. But specific trends and waves occur in each new generation that are undeniable. Much of the time, a generation tends to lean a certain way because they are simply responding to the generation before them or responding to the period events during their formative years.

So why do social generations matter? Some say they're unnecessary labels used to stereotype people of a particular age group. Others say there's no connection between the members of each cohort. But generations don't define who you are; they allow you to understand where you fit into society and then choose the impact you want to make on the world. Stereotypes within each generation may exist, but researchers know the individual members of a generation don't always fit into a box. However, a social generation does not always distinguish what each person's personality in that generation is like. It simply points to the time in which they grew up and how that has impacted their behaviors, values, and motivations. 

Generations in popular culture

With the rise of social media in the early 2000s, generations have become a big deal in popular culture. According to Oxford Bibliographies, popular culture, also known as pop culture or mass culture, is "the set of practices, beliefs, and objects that embody the most broadly shared meanings of a social system."

Social media has contributed to the growing interest in generations since social media is one of the major ways news spreads in modern society. In fact, half of Americans admitted they get their news from social media at least part of the time. But which generations are using social media to share this information? 

The most popular social media channels are Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, LinkedIn, and Reddit. However, social media usage by each generation varies greatly depending on the social media outlet.

Studies have shown that those from Generation Z, Generation X, and Millennials use social media more frequently than other generations in general. Still, social media usage and the time spent on different platforms differs. However, there are also some commonalities between generations. For example, images are the most preferred type of content across all the generations in the study, and more than 80 percent of every generation uses some form of social media every day.

Popular culture can influence what the members of a generation wear, what music they listen to, and who they vote for. It's part of what makes each generation so unique. Without the influence of popular culture, you wouldn't be able to go to a "Decades" themed party and dress like you're from the 80s, 90s, or even the 20s. The fact that we can identify which generation someone is from based on their music choices or fashion sense shows how pop culture has impacted each generation's preferences.

Conflict between generations

The conflict between generations isn't new; ask any teenager whose parents are a part of a different generation. There's a reason why younger generations claim older generations don't understand or are out of touch, and it's more than just the teenage hormones.

There are exceptions to the rule, but part of the conflict younger generations have with older generations is caused by pop culture, especially within social media.

"OK, boomer," a catchphrase made popular by Generation Z, may have started as a meme but has revealed a more complex issue of generational conflict. The phrase, used widely on social media and now printed on merchandise, is meant to mock those in the Baby Boomer generation (aka Boomers.)

Many Gen Zers have expressed it's a mindset they're criticizing, not a group of people. Unfortunately, it's the fixed mindset they claim many Baby Boomers have where they're unwilling to learn new ways of doing things or progress forward on social and political issues.

The Covid-19 Pandemic, which hit America in March of 2020, has contributed to a growing resentment between Millennials, Gen Z, and the Baby Boomers. The frustration of the younger generations is that many believe the Baby Boomers lived much more manageable lives but have no interest in helping the next generation. As a result, they blame Baby Boomers for many of the financial issues they're facing today. 

How do I find out what generation I’m in?

There are currently seven named social generations, starting with the Lost Generation, which spans from 1883-to 1900. To find out what social generation you're a part of, you will first need the year you were born. If your birth year falls clearly within a specific generation, then figuring out which one you're a part of is simple.

Suppose your birth year does not identify you as one generation. In that case, you may need to learn a little bit more about the two possible generations before you determine which one you're a part of. For instance, if you were born in 1925, you would be a part of the Silent Generation according to one definition. However, some researchers state that the Silent Generation didn't start until 1928. So, in this case, you might look into the characteristics of both generations to see which one you fit into.

There is some overlap between some generations because not all experts agree on how a generation should be determined. There are two methods of defining a generation in the US. The first method uses data regarding the rise and fall of the birth rate to determine where a generation ends and another begins. The second method is to use major cultural or historical events to separate the generations.

Because of these two methods, all experts do not agree on the names and years of the recognized social generations. 

The various generations, according to Pew Research Center, are as follows:

• Silent Generation (1928-1945)

• Boomers (1946-1964)

• Generation X (1965-1980)

• Millennials (1981-1996)

• Generation Z (1997-2012)

To show a different perspective, Strauss and Howe identify the generations from 1900 to the present generation as the following:

• GI Generation (1900-1924)

• Silent Generation (1925-1945)

• Baby Boomers (1946-1964)

• Thirteeners or Generation X (1965-1979)

• Millennials or Generation Y (1980-2000)

• New Silent Generation or Generation Z (2000-)

What are the social generations?

Since the naming and recognizing of social generations started in the 19th century, only a handful of social generations are recognized. The years that make up each generation may vary slightly depending on where you look. Since there isn’t one true definition for generation, researchers don’t always agree on the length of a generation or the name. Pew Research Center even acknowledged that finding the cut-off date for the span of a generation is not an exact science. It’s difficult to say what is official, considering the Baby Boomer generation is the only generation designated by the U.S. Census Bureau. This inconsistency doesn’t mean the extensive amounts of research done on the other existing social generations isn’t meaningful. Still, it does mean it should be taken into account that there are differing opinions about how each generation is defined.

In general, in Western culture, the following are the social generations currently identified:

• The Lost Generation (1883-1900)

The term “lost generation” was coined by Gertrude Stein. This term describes the generation of people who fought in World War I. 

• The Greatest Generation or GI Generation (1901-1927)

Journalist Tom Brokaw popularized the name in his book, The Greatest Generation, published in 1998.

• The Silent Generation (1928-1945)

Sometimes also known as “the lucky few,” this generation grew up in the post World War II world. 

• Baby Boomers (1946-1964)

Those born after World War II between 1946 and 1964 are considered a part of this generation. The members of this generation were a product of the post-World War II baby boom that occurred after soldiers returned home from the war. 

• Generation X (1965-1980)

Sometimes called Gen X for short and by some, the “baby bust” generation due to a significant drop in the birth rates after the Baby Boomers generation. 

• Millennials (1981-1996)

This generation is sometimes referred to as Generation Y because they follow Generation X, but Millennials is the name that stuck. According to Pew Research Center, growing up around the third millennium, they surpassed the Baby Boomers in size. 

• Generation Z (1997-2012)

The generation following millennials, the span of this generation is considered to be the mid-1990s to the early 2010s.  

• Generation Alpha (the early 2010s to mid-2020s)

The newest identified generation, generation alpha, is the first to span entirely through the 21st century. 

How are generations named? 

Generation naming began in the 20th century, and some generations have multiple names. For example, researchers Strauss and Howe suggested the name "Thirteeners' for the generation we know as Generation X (1965-1979). Still, the name ultimately didn't catch on. Some of the generational names are obvious- Baby Boomers, for example. Baby Boomer refers to anyone born between the end of WWII and the mid-1960s. Baby Boomers got their name because of the "boom" in births after soldiers returned from WWII.  

Other names are not as obvious. Gertrude Stein (1874-1946), an American novelist and poet, famously said, "You are all a lost generation." The phrase became popular when her friend and fellow novelist Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) used it as an epigraph in his novel, The Sun Also Rises. Hemingway's novel, published in 1926, was meant to present Hemingway's take on the Lost Generation.

Douglas Copeland, a Canadian author, was responsible for naming Generation X. The name became popular after he published Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture, in 1991. A few years prior, Copeland wrote a piece for Vancouver Magazine titled "Generation X," which was the beginning of the ideas he wrote about in his book. The name Generation X first appeared as the title of a photo essay by Robert Capa about youth growing up after World War II but was not used to describe the generation born between 1965 and 1980 until after the publication of Copeland's book. 

The names of the remaining generations are mostly credited to Strauss and Howe. Most of the names identified in their 1991 book are used in popular culture. However, much like the actual age ranges of the generations, there is also some disagreement surrounding their names. This disagreement is why several social generations have more than one name they go by or why there is some uncertainty about the newer generations. 

Some older generations have a name related explicitly to an event or an author who coined the name. The newer generations, such as Generation Z, have yet to be determined. Some think the alphabetical trend should continue, hence Generation X, Y, and Z, while others have attempted a clever name for the Generation from 1997-to 2012, such as iGeneration or Centennials. Even Strauss himself said some of the names of generations could be random or based on the year, not on the group of people.

Overview

The term generation has existed for a long time, but not how we use it today. Social generations, or groups of people born in the same culture and during the same period, didn't exist as a concept until the 19th century. 

There are many theories about generations. Karl Mannheim, a sociologist, developed the first generational theory. He wrote about this theory in his 1928 essay titled "The Problem of Generations."

William Strauss and Neil Howe, authors of Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584 to 2069, and The Fourth Turning, created the second popular generational theory. Strauss and Howe believed each generation spanned about 20 years. The historical events that define a generation move in cycles called turnings. Even though Strauss and Howe took an incredibly different approach to generational theory, a good portion of their research is used to identify the generations in the Western world today.

Generations are essential because they provide a foundation for analyzing and understanding groups of people based on more than just their age. However, generational differences have caused some conflict, such as the rising resentment of Millennials and Gen Zers for Baby Boomers. 

But generational differences can also be positive. Many members of the older generations can guide those who are coming of age and growing up in a much different world. The opposite is also true- when it comes to technology and social media, those from Generation Z have led the way and can teach those who aren't as well versed in modern trends. 

Finding out what generation you're a part of can help you understand yourself better and those who grew up in the same time as you. Among the various theories about generations, they all have in common the idea that members of a generation often share specific values, preferences, and other characteristics. In addition, each generation has cultural and historical events that have impacted the way they view the world around them. How each generation reacts to these events defines them and determines the course of the generations that will come after them.